Levant hunter-gatherers invent the mortar and pestle, reshaping how humans eat

Story: ~35,000 B.C.E.  |  Last updated: January 1, 0001

Long before the first fields were planted or the first cities built, a group of hunter-gatherers in Southwest Asia made a discovery that would quietly reshape every cuisine, every medicine kit, and every kitchen that followed. They picked up a rounded stone, set it against a heavy bowl of hard rock, and began to grind. That motion — repeated billions of times across every culture since — traces back to the ancient Levant roughly 35,000 years ago.

What the evidence shows

• Mortar and pestle origins: The oldest known grinding tools date to approximately 35,000 B.C.E., recovered from cave sediments in the Levant — the region covering modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.
• Stone Age grinding tools: Early examples were carved from hard, dense stone chosen for durability and for its low tendency to shed grit into food during heavy use — archaeological finds include sculpted conical bowls paired with smoother pestle stones.
• Dual-use evidence: Archaeological analysis suggests these tools processed both edible seeds — unlocking calories previously inaccessible to human digestion — and medicinal plants, making them among the earliest known pharmaceutical instruments.

A tool born from necessity

The Levant of 35,000 B.C.E. was home to mobile hunter-gatherer communities navigating a landscape of wild grasses, root plants, and seasonal abundance. Many seeds and grains are nutritionally dense but biologically defended — their tough outer shells resist digestion.

Grinding broke those defenses. Crushing seeds into coarse flour gave communities access to a caloric surplus they could not get from whole seeds alone. That surplus supported larger group sizes, longer stays at productive sites, and eventually the conditions that made settled life conceivable.

The mortar and pestle did not cause agriculture. But it helped make the idea of it thinkable.

The tools were not always small or portable. Archaeologists have recovered large stone bowls — some requiring a person to stand upright beside them and use the full weight of their upper body to grind. The Raqefet Cave in Israel contains rock mortars large enough to have been used for brewing grain-based beer around 10,000 B.C.E., suggesting these tools served social and ritual purposes as well as nutritional ones.

Spreading across every culture on Earth

What makes the mortar and pestle unusual in the history of technology is how completely it was adopted — independently, repeatedly, and across every inhabited continent.

Ancient Africans, Sumerians, Egyptians, Polynesian communities, Indigenous peoples across the Americas, Chinese, Indian, Greek, and Celtic cultures all developed versions of the same tool. The Kebaran culture of the Levant was using sculpted stone mortars to process grains between 22,000 and 18,000 B.C.E. In Mesoamerica, the metate — a flat grinding stone — served a parallel function for processing maize. In sub-Saharan Africa, large wooden mortars were used to pound grains like sorghum and millet, a practice that continues today.

Parallel invention on this scale is rare. It speaks to something universal: the human need to transform raw materials into something more useful, more digestible, or more potent. The grinding motion, it turns out, is one of the most intuitive things a human hand can do.

From kitchen to laboratory to pharmacy

The mortar and pestle’s reach extended far beyond food. In early medicine, healers across cultures used grinding tools to prepare plant-based remedies — crushing bark, root, leaf, and seed into pastes and powders. The Roman poet Juvenal explicitly linked the mortar and pestle to the preparation of drugs, and the image became so associated with pharmacy that it remains the official symbol of pharmacy in many countries today.

In ceramics, ground pottery fragments — called grog — were mixed back into clay to improve the strength of fired vessels. In construction, the same grinding principle gave us the word mortar for cement. Even the short-barreled cannon called a mortar took its name from its resemblance to the bowl-shaped grinding tool.

By the 14th century C.E., bronze mortars had largely replaced stone for use in alchemy and early chemistry. By the late 17th century C.E., glazed porcelain became standard in laboratories because it resisted chemical reactions and was easy to clean. The basic design, however, had not meaningfully changed in tens of thousands of years.

Lasting impact

The mortar and pestle sits at the root of several of the most consequential transitions in human history. It made seeds digestible at scale, contributing to the conditions that enabled the Neolithic agricultural revolution. It enabled the systematic preparation of medicines, laying groundwork for pharmacology. The large wooden mortar — used with a long wooden pestle — directly preceded the invention of the butter churn, since domestication of livestock came well after grinding tools were already in wide use.

It also democratized transformation. Unlike later milling technologies that required infrastructure, capital, or large-scale organization, the mortar and pestle was portable, low-cost, and operable by a single person. Communities without access to centralized mills — across Africa, Asia, and the Americas — relied on hand grinding for millennia, and many still do. The simplicity of the tool is not a limitation. It is what made it universal.

The word pesto — now one of the most recognized sauces in the world — comes directly from the Italian pestare, meaning to pound or crush, which shares its root with the Latin pistillum: the pestle. Every time the word appears on a menu, it carries a quiet echo of a stone bowl in a cave 35,000 years ago.

Blindspots and limits

The archaeological record for the mortar and pestle is necessarily incomplete. Wooden and clay versions — almost certainly widespread — have not survived. This means the origins of grinding technology in forest-based and tropical cultures are largely invisible to us, and the 35,000 B.C.E. date reflects what stone can preserve, not necessarily when humans first began grinding.

It is also worth acknowledging that the heavy labor of daily grinding — pounding grain for hours to feed a family — fell disproportionately on women in many cultures, a reality that modern romanticization of ancient tools can obscure. The physical toll of repetitive grinding on joints and posture has been documented in skeletal remains from early agricultural communities.

Read more

For more on this story, see: Wikipedia — Mortar and pestle

For more from Good News for Humankind, see:

• Indigenous communities secure rights to 160 million hectares at COP30
• Uganda reintroduces rhinos to Kidepo Valley
• The Good News for Humankind archive on prehistory

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